Research points to the limited availability of playspaces in lower socio-economic status neighborhoods, as well as racially and ethnically diverse neighborhoods. In some communities, the proximity of playspaces may be equitable, but the quality of these spaces is diminished, restricting children’s opportunities for play. Adverse conditions, especially safety issues, may further hinder children and parents in low-income communities and/or communities of color from visiting parks and other outdoor playspaces.

National study links neighborhood park inequities to children’s physical and mental health disparities

Analysis of data from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health showed that urban African American children were more likely than white, non-Hispanic children to lack neighborhood parks. Children in non-urban locations or below the federal poverty level also had higher odds of not having a park in their neighborhood. Findings also revealed that children lacking neighborhood parks were more likely to have an ADHD diagnosis, be overweight or obese, and demonstrate poor health behaviors.
Reuben et al., 2020. Association of neighborhood parks with child health in the United States. 
Access Study

Access to urban parks may be limited by park crime and congestion

An investigation of park equity in Hartford, Connecticut found that parks were equitably distributed in relation to race, income and education. However, inequities were associated with park congestion and park crime. Higher median house value was related to less park crowdedness, while some neighborhoods showed more park crime disparities with respect to race, education, and income. The study provides a framework for measuring park equity through assessment of park proximity, congestion and crime.
Zhang & Park, 2023. Investigating spatial heterogeneity of park inequity using three access measures: A case study in Hartford, Connecticut.
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A regional park equity analysis revealed disparities in park access and specific features related to park quality

Researchers in an urban region of the Southeastern U.S. examined potential inequities in park availability and quality in relation to neighborhood sociodemographic factors. While results indicated that high poverty areas had more parks, some disparities were found relating to park transportation access, aesthetics and amenity availability. Findings highlight the need for more detailed research to explore the association between neighborhood sociodemographic factors, park availability and park quality.
Hallum et al., 2024. Unearthing inequities in the relationship between multiple sociodemographic factors and diverse elements of park availability and quality in a major southern metropolitan region.
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Certain racial/ethnic groups have fewer public transportation options to large parks in the Western U.S. than other groups

Researchers used a novel measure of public transit access to parks to determine the number of large parks that residents in the 15 largest metropolitan areas in the Western U.S. can access by public transit or walking. Relating those results to neighborhood-level disadvantage provided some evidence of environmental injustice, with BIPOC communities having both worse walking and transit access to large parks compared to non-Hispanic white people.
Park et al., 2021. Transit to parks: An environmental justice study of transit access to large parks in the U.S. West.
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Major U.S. cities have significantly less street greenery in racial/ethnic minority and low-income neighborhoods than other neighborhoods

This study considered green spaces of different sizes, from street greenery to parks, in its examination of sociodemographic differences in access to green spaces in 12 U.S. cities. Results showed “a complex picture of inequality.” While both just and unjust distributions of green space were identified, injustices regarding street greenery were most prevalent. Findings suggest that the populations who need environmental amenities the most may not have just access to green space in major cities.
Choi, Park & Rigolon, 2020. From XS to XL urban nature: Examining access to different types of green space using a ‘just sustainabilities’ framework.
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Study in Hong Kong identifies issues related to distributional justice with respect to parks in a high-density city

Assessment of the quality of 102 parks in Hong Kong indicated that deprived areas tended to have more active facilities and supporting amenities within parks than economically advantaged areas. These results reflect current policies designed to improve equity in parks. However, communities with higher percentages of ethnic minorities tended to have parks with fewer active facilities and less diversity of active facilities and supporting amenities than parks with a lower percentage of ethnic minorities.
Zhang et al., 2021. The neighborhood socioeconomic inequalities in urban parks in a high-density city: An environmental justice perspective. 
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As a result of historic and contemporary systemic discrimination, parks, playgrounds, and green spaces – the places that support children’s play – are often harder to find in areas where residents have lower incomes and among communities of color. The distribution of community parks and green spaces often reflect racial and economic segregation, and a variety of political, economic and cultural factors continue to influence access. Experiences of racism or exclusion can also limit the presence and activities of youth of color in neighborhoods undergoing environmental gentrification.

Understanding the mechanisms that contribute to park access inequities is a critical step in resolving this environmental justice issue

A study investigated the political, economic and cultural factors that precipitated – and continue to perpetuate – park distribution inequities in Denver, Colorado. Review of public policy and planning documents showed that the city’s urban parks are distributed to benefit affluent white residents more than low-income communities of color. The most persistent inequities in access to parks in Denver are related to discriminatory land use and housing policies that have influenced where low-income people of color reside.
Rigolon & Németh, 2021. What shapes uneven access to urban amenities? Thick injustice and the legacy of racial discrimination in Denver’s parks.
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Current policy documents impacting urban Ghana fail to address the need for child-friendly spaces to play

Researchers examined planning policies in urban Ghana for features friendly to children’s outdoor play and independent mobility. Review of city and national policy documents directly related to children and general policies that can impact play opportunities revealed “a policy vacuum on measures and strategies that advocate for children’s play and play spaces in urban Ghana.” These results call for changes in policy and practice to create urban environments conducive to play.
Adjei-Boadi et al., 2022. Neighborhood, built environment and children’s outdoor play spaces in urban Ghana: Review of policies and challenges. 
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Household mobility, along with the history of park development, can contribute to inequalities in access to green space

Research in Australia documented significant differences in green space access for people living in low-income and more affluent neighborhoods, with the distribution of green space favoring the more affluent communities. Further, mobility or relocation led to an increase in the number of low-income people living in areas with poor access to green space. The history of park development, which tended to be near more affluent communities, has also exacerbated green space inequity.
Sharifi et al., 2021. Accessing green space in Melbourne: Measuring inequity and household mobility.
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Citizen-based policing targets minority youth in parks in neighborhoods experiencing environmental gentrification

This study examined citizen-based policing of youth in an urban greenway connected to neighborhoods experiencing environmental gentrification in Chicago. Interviews conducted with 46 residents, including 17 youth of color (under the age of 26), indicated that white residents often feared youth of color and used citizen-based policing to monitor and control youth’s behavior on the greenway. Youth of color used different strategies to cope with policing, including self-segregation, avoidance and abandonment of using the greenway.
Harris, Rigolon & Fernandez, 2020. “To them, we’re just kids from the hood”: Citizen-based policing of youth of color, “white space,” and environmental gentrification.
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Research also points to strategies for promoting equitable play, and many communities are taking action to improve playspace access. Recommendations for advancing play equity emerging from the literature highlight the benefits of greening schoolyards and neighborhoods, involving the community and youth in park planning, ensuring safe access routes and neighborhoods, and bolstering social connection in urban communities. As a result of more equitable access to greenspaces, studies also indicate a reduction in health disparities that disproportionately impact underserved communities. 

Nearby parks, safe access routes, and neighborhood designs that facilitate social connection encourage young children’s outdoor free play

A systematic review of 53 studies on young children’s (age 0-6) participation in outdoor free play in urban and suburban neighborhood built environments highlighted the importance of the availability of play space close to home – either as parks/playgrounds, or as informal areas children can adapt for play. Safety, traffic-protected routes, access to nature, and opportunities for social connection were also important drivers of outdoor free play. Reviewed studies were mainly conducted in Western countries.
Gemmell, 2023. Influence of neighborhood built environments on the outdoor free play of young children: A systematic, mixed-studies review and thematic synthesis.
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Collaboration between designers and community members for park improvements may support environmental justice in low-income minority neighborhoods

Interviews regarding proposed changes to a park in a low-income, predominantly African American neighborhood in the U.S. gave park users the opportunity to express their perspectives. Interview responses revealed a potential mismatch between designers’ plans and neighborhood priorities. Results indicate that community involvement may facilitate effective park design, thereby improving equitable access to urban parks. A community-driven process of “place-making” offers an approach to engage users in park design.
Carnahan et al., 2020. Place-making practices for park improvements to support environmental justice in a low-income African American neighborhood.
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Schools can help mitigate environmental injustices suffered by low-income, high minority communities by increasing greenness on their property

A study of four school districts across North Carolina, U.S. found that more socially vulnerable neighborhoods had less green space than less vulnerable neighborhoods. Green space at the public schools, however, was more equally distributed than in the surrounding neighborhoods and was not related to socioeconomic or racial composition of students. The study indicated that greening schoolyards can support play for all students, and particularly those with less access to green spaces as a result of historic discrimination practices.
Zhang et al., 2021. Equally green? Understanding the distribution of urban green infrastructure across student demographics in four public school districts in North Carolina, USA. 
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Strategic greenspace planning can play an important role in promoting health equity

This review of studies from multiple countries found that green space had more protective effects for lower-income groups than higher-income groups. Of the different types of green space, public spaces and parks provided stronger protective effects for this population than other types, including green land cover. The stronger beneficial effects for people of low socio-economic status, as compared to people of high socio-economic status, were more pronounced for general health and cardiovascular health/disease.
Rigolon et al., 2021. Green space and health equity: A systematic review on the potential of green space to reduce health disparities.
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Neighborhood greening may improve adolescent health and reduce health disparities

This theoretical paper examined how neighborhood greening might mitigate health disparities impacting urban adolescents in Baltimore, Maryland. Researchers proposed a Greening Theory of Change (ToC) to explore “the relationship between conversion of vacant land to community‐cared‐for green spaces with adolescent health outcomes.” Urban greening initiatives that increase greenspace access may reduce health disparities and improve safety for adolescents. The Greening ToC framework can inform neighborhood decisions and wider policy aimed at advancing adolescent health.
Kondo et al., 2024. A greening theory of change: How neighborhood greening impacts adolescent health disparities. 
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